Articoli Scientifici

According to Control-Mastery Theory, patients attend therapy with an unconscious plan to achieve adaptive goals and disprove their pathogenic beliefs. One important way patients work to disconfirm these beliefs is by testing them. Moreover, patients coach their therapists on what they need at different times during their treatment. The aim of this study is to expand the results of previous studies suggesting that therapists’ responses that support patients’plan predict progress. We investigated whether therapists’ ability to pass patients’ tests correlated with patients’ improvement in the following session and whether their ability to follow patients’ coaches correlated with immediate improvement. Transcriptions of 98 sessions from six brief psychodynamic psychotherapies wer assessed by 12 independent raters. The patients’ plans were formulated, and tests and coaching communications were identified. The accuracy of the therapist’s responses to these tests and coaches was rated, and the impact of the therapist’s interventions on the patient’s following communication was measured. The results showed that when a therapist’s intervention passes a patient’s tests, patients show signs of improvement both immediately and in the following session, and when therapists follow patients’ coaches, patients show signs of immediate improvement. The clinical implications and limitations of the findings are discussed.

Impostor phenomenon refers to the psychological feeling of intellectual phoniness. It can favor failures and support a scarce perception of one’s own competence in order to protect social relations. The aim of this study was to investigate, with a longitudinal design, the contribution of fear of success and guilt over success in the experience of impostor phenomenon and its connections to maladaptive behaviors, such as submission and self-handicapping tendency. We assumed that impostor phenomenon would mediate the relationship between fear of success, guilt over success, and distress related to it, on one hand, and self-handicapping and submissive behavior on the other. Moreover, several personality variables were tested as potential predictors and protection factors against impostor phenomenon. As expected, we found a positive relationship between fear of success, guilt over success, and impostor phenomenon, and a positive relationship between impostor phenomenon and a tendency toward submitting and self-handicapping. Our findings suggest that the tendency to experience guilt and distress about success and the preoccupation with the impact of one’s own success on our important relationship predicted, both directly and with the mediation of impostor phenomenon, the tendency to submit and self-handicap.

According to Control-Mastery Theory (CMT)—a cognitive-dynamic relational theory of mental functioning, psychopathology, and psychotherapy—patients come to therapy with an unconscious plan to disprove their pathogenic beliefs and achieve adaptive goals. One of the primary ways patients work to disconfirm their pathogenic beliefs is by testing them within the therapeutic relationship. The present study aimed to replicate and expand the results of previous studies suggesting that therapists’ responses that disconfirmed patient’s pathogenic beliefs were predictive of patients’ within-session progress. Moreover, we wanted to investigate whether these interventions correlated with the therapeutic alliance. Transcriptions of 81 sessions from five brief psychodynamic psychotherapies were assessed by 11 independent raters. For each case, the patient’s plan was formulated and tests identified, the accuracy of the therapist’s responses to these tests was rated, and the impact of the therapist’s interventions on the patient’s subsequent communications and their relationship with the therapeutic alliance was measured. The results supported the central hypothesis of the CMT that when the therapist’s interventions passed the patient’s tests, the patient showed signs of improvement. Moreover, the ability of the therapist to pass the patient’s tests correlated with the therapeutic alliance. The clinical implications and the limitations of these findings are discussed, together with the relevance of a good case formulation for clinicians’ optimal responsiveness.

The aim of this paper is to give the reader an overview of several theoretical, empirical, and clinical features of survivor guilt, and to integrate recent contributions of psychodynamic theory and, in particular, of control-mastery theory into the understanding of the concept alongside the latest findings in social psychology about it. After introducing the concept of survivor guilt and its origins in clinical observations on the consequences of having survived severe traumas (e.g., internment in concentration camps), we will discuss the findings in social psychology on the concept of survivor guilt in everyday social interactions, which is based on a conception that does not connect it strictly to severe traumas. We will then focus our attention on clinical observations and empirical research studies about survivor guilt, discussing the hypotheses developed by several control-mastery theorists about its role in psychopathology. Finally, we will illustrate some manifestations of survivor guilt with a brief clinical vignette.

Impostor phenomenon (Clance, 1985) refers to the psychological experience of individuals who perceive themselves as intellectual frauds and fear of being exposed as impostors. Previous studies suggest that the fear of failure, the fear of success, and low self-esteem are preconditions that foster the occurrence of impostor feelings (e.g., Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016). The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the impostor phenomenon and interpersonal guilt as conceived in Control-Mastery Theory (Faccini et al., 2020), and their association with anxiety and depression. 343 subjects completed the Interpersonal Guilt Rating Scale-15s (IGRS-15s; Faccini et al, 2020), the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; Clance, 1985), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1983), and the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI II; Beck et al., 1996). As expected, impostor phenomenon was significantly associated with self-hate, survivor guilt and omnipotence guilt. The hypothesis that these kinds of guilt and the impostor phenomenon can contribute to anxiety and depression has also been confirmed. This study suggests that people who experience impostor fears struggle with maladaptive feelings of guilt related to pathogenic beliefs about oneself and significant others, favoring depression and anxiety. Therefore, working on these aspects can be essential in treating these patients.

The aim of this paper is to illustrate the meaning and functions of dreams according to control-mastery theory (CMT), a cognitive-dynamic relational theory developed and empirically validated in the last 40 years by the San Francisco Psychotherapy Research Group (Gazzillo, 2016; Silberschatz, 2005; Weiss, 1993a; Weiss, Sampson, & the Mount Zion Psychotherapy Research Group, 1986). CMT stresses how dreams reflect the person’s efforts to adapt to reality; their production is regulated by a safety principle and is an expression of human unconscious higher adaptive functions. According to this model, dreams represent our unconscious attempts to find solutions to emotionally relevant problems. In dreams people think about their main concerns, particularly those concerns that they have been unable to solve by conscious thought alone, and they try to develop and test plans and policies for dealing with them. After having introduced the reader to the main concepts of CMT, we will illustrate the different facets of the CMT model of dreams with several clinical examples. Finally, we will describe the core elements of recently developed models of dream functions and meanings based on empirical research on sleep and dreams, and we will show their substantial compatibility with hypotheses proposed by CMT.

The aim of this article is to present an overview of several recently proposed hypotheses about the development of morality and guilt during the evolution of our species and the individual psychic development. The article will show how group selection seems to have favored the development of prosocial motivations, emotions, and skills, which are the basis of “moral” judgments and behaviors, and how the specific experiences of each individual and her/his belonging to a specific culture shape this first moral innate “draft.” We will then review relevant empirical data about the development of guilt in infancy and early childhood from empathic concern and the tendency to feel responsible for other people’s wellbeing, and the temperamental and environmental factors at the basis of adaptive and maladaptive guilt. Finally, we will show the substantial compatibility between these recently developed hypotheses and data and the hypotheses developed by the Control-Mastery theory starting from clinical observation and from the ideas of several psychoanalytic authors.

Worry and rumination are maladaptive cognitive strategies with the purpose to manage negative emotions and threatening events (Wells & Matthews, 1994), and studies have shown that they are associated with an increasing of anxiety and depression (Fresco et al., 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). Although the relationship between guilt and shame with depression and anxiety is well documented (Cândea & Szentagotai-Tătar, 2018; Thibodeau, & Jorgensen, 2011), only few studies (Orth et al., 2006; Mor & Winquist, 2002; Spasojevic & Alloy, 2001) investigated the mediational role of worry and rumination in the relationship between guilt and shame and depression and anxiety. We hypothesized that worry and rumination correlate with all types of interpersonal guilt and with shame and that they mediate the effects of these moral emotions on depression and anxiety disorders. We recruited a sample of 343 subjects, to whom we administered the Interpersonal Guilt Rating Scale-15s (IGRS-15s; Gazzillo et al. 2018), The Other as Shamer Scale (OAS; Goss, Gilbert, & Allan, 1994), The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983), The Beck Depression Inventory II, The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer, Miller, Metzger, & Borkovec, 1990) and The Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Treynor et al., 2003) and an ad hoc form for assessing sociodemographic and anamnestic information. In line with our hypotheses (Gazzillo, Leonardi, Bush, 2020), worry and rumination correlated with all types of interpersonal guilt. Moreover, worry and rumination were positively correlated with depression and anxiety disorders; specifically, rumination emerged as a mediating factor between self-hate and depression, while worry was a mediating factor in the relationship between omnipotence and trait anxiety. Finally, our hypothesis that, in worrying and ruminating, shame had a relevant impact, was also confirmed. This study suggests that guilt and shame may be a powerful component of mental health problems and that worry and rumination represent risk factors for the maintenance and exacerbation of these disorders.

The aim of this article is to introduce the reader to how control-mastery theory (CMT; Gazzillo, 2016; Silberschatz, 2005; Weiss, 1993), an integrative relational cognitive-dynamic theory of mental functioning, psychopathology, and psychotherapeutic process, understands traumas, their consequences, and their mastery. In the first part of this article, we will present an overview of the debate about the definition of trauma within the different editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Then, we will focus on the concept of complex traumas and on their consequences on mental health. Finally, we will discuss how CMT conceptualizes traumas and their pathological consequences. We will stress in particular how, according to CMT, in order for a painful experience to become a trauma, its victim has to come to believe that s/he caused it in the attempt to pursue a healthy and adaptive goal. In order to master traumas and disprove the pathogenic beliefs developed from them, people attempt to reexperience situations similar to the traumatic ones in safer conditions while giving them happier endings.

The aim of this paper is to describe and discuss the models of the process of change in psychotherapy developed by the Boston Change Process Study Group (2010), and by the San Francisco Psychotherapy Research Group (Gazzillo, 2016; Silberschatz, 2005; Weiss, 1993; Weiss, Sampson, & the Mount Zion Psychotherapy Research Group, 1986). The first model is centered on change in implicit relational knowledge and describes the process of change as being composed of “moving along” phases interspersed by “now moments” that can become “moments of meeting” if the clinician is to give authentic and specifically fitted responses. A moment of meeting opens up space for a change in the implicit relational knowledge of the patient. The second model is centered on the idea that patients come to therapy with an unconscious plan to master traumas, pursue healthy and adaptive goals, and disprove their pathogenic beliefs, and points to how patients test their pathogenic beliefs in the relationship with the therapist, coaching the therapist about what they need. Passing patients’ tests means helping them disconfirm or undermine pathogenic beliefs that hopefully will lead to disproving them. This second model focuses on the subjective meaning of the therapeutic process as seen from the perspective of the patient. We will also try to show, using clinical examples, how these two models can be integrated and how their integration may give us a more comprehensive, tridimensional vision of the therapeutic process.

Recent studies on moral development suggest the existence of a set of innate abilities which foster moral functioning. From a very early age on, children seem to show ability for moral discernment, together with emotions and pro-social motivations based on an innate propensity to empathize with people in difficulty and respect equity; moreover, they tend to feel guilty when they believe that they transgressed some basic “moral principles”. Evolutionary studies suggest that human morality stems from group selection. During its evolutionary history, human species met socioecological conditions that made group selection the dominant evolutionary force, thus favouring the development of cognitive abilities, emotions, and motivations essential for cooperation within groups. Also according to the CMT morality arises from the human need to preserve connectedness with other people - family members above all (attachment) - and the propensity to make them feel good (care). In sum, starting from an innate moral draft which is pre-reflexive and evolutionarily founded, morality and guilt would then be shaped by the emotionally relevant experiences people go through within their family and cultural environment.